This toolkit contains all of the definitions, properties, facts and theorems you need to memorize all on one webpage. These are your tools on quizzes and exams.
It also contains the Desmos animations we have seen in class!
Table of Contents
A set is a collection of objects, along with a condition of membership. We write \[A = \{\text{objects} : \text{membership condition}\}\]
If $a$ is an element of the set $S$, we write $a \in S$.
$\mathbb{R}$ denotes the set of all real numbers. The familiar $xy$-plane is \[\mathbb{R}^2 = \{(x, y) : x, y \in \mathbb{R}\}\]
The 3D rectangular coordinate system is \[\mathbb{R}^3 = \{(x, y, z) : x, y, z \in \mathbb{R}\}\]
Movement in each coordinate $a, b, c$ of the point $(a, b, c)$ is parallel to the $x$-, $y$-, and $z$-axis, respectively.
There are two directions the positive $z$-axis could point. Mathematicians decided on the right hand rule: flatten your hand and point your four fingers along the $x$-axis. Curl your fingers in the shortest rotation from the $x$-axis to the $y$-axis. Then your thumb points in the direction of the positive $z$-axis.
The distance between the points $P_1(x_1, y_1, z_1)$ and $P_2(x_2, y_2, z_2)$, denoted $|P_1P_2|$, is \[|P_1P_2| = \sqrt{(x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2 + (z_2 - z_1)^2}\]
A sphere is the set of all points $P(x, y, z)$ at distance $r$ away from the center $C(h, k, \ell)$. Its equation is \[(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 + (z - \ell)^2 = r^2\]
If the center is $O(0,0,0)$, then the equation is \[x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = r^2\]
A vector is a mathematical quantity with both direction and magnitude. Vectors carry no information about position.
A displacement vector $\ray{AB}$ is a vector that takes you from a point $A$ to a point $B$.
Two vectors are equivalent (we write $\ray{AB} = \ray{CD}$) if they have the same direction and magnitude. Their initial points may be different, yet the vectors are equivalent.
The zero vector, denoted $\vec{0}$, is the vector with magnitude $0$. It is the one exception to the definition above: it has no assigned direction.
Given two vectors $\vec{u}$ and $\vec{v}$, position the tail of $\vec{v}$ on the tip of $\vec{u}$. Then $\vec{u} + \vec{v}$ is the vector from the tail of $\vec{u}$ to the tip of $\vec{v}$.
Let $c$ be a scalar and $\vec{v}$ a vector. The scalar multiple $c\vec{v}$ is the vector whose magnitude is $|c|$ times the magnitude of $\vec{v}$ and whose direction is the same as $\vec{v}$ if $c > 0$ and opposite to $\vec{v}$ if $c < 0$.
If $c = 0$ or $\vec{v} = \vec{0}$, then $c\vec{v} = \vec{0}$.
Scaling changes magnitude and either preserves or reverses direction. Every scalar multiple of $\vec{v}$ lies along the same line. Collecting all of them at once, the set \[\left\{c\,\vec{v} : c \in \mathbb{R}\right\}\] is a line in the direction of $\vec{v}$.
The difference of two vectors is defined as \[\vec{u} - \vec{v} = \vec{u} + (-\vec{v})\]
Think Reverse the direction of $\vec{v}$, then add normally.
If the initial points of both vectors are the same, $\vec{u} - \vec{v}$ is simply the vector from the tip of $\vec{v}$ to the tip of $\vec{u}$.
If we let the initial point of a vector $\vec{a}$ be the origin, then the terminal point has coordinates $(a_1, a_2)$ or $(a_1, a_2, a_3)$, and we write \[\vec{a} = \vc{a_1, a_2} \qquad \text{or} \qquad \vec{a} = \vc{a_1, a_2, a_3}\]
Angled brackets distinguish a vector from a coordinate $(a_1, a_2)$. These vectors are called position vectors.
Given points $A(a_1, a_2, a_3)$ and $B(b_1, b_2, b_3)$, the (position) vector $\vec{v}$ with representation $\ray{AB}$ is \[\vec{v} = \vc{b_1 - a_1,\ b_2 - a_2,\ b_3 - a_3}\] A vector is a difference of points (destination minus start). This is why a vector has no information about position: the difference forgets where the vector started.
Let $\vec{a} = \vc{a_1, a_2, a_3}$, $\vec{b} = \vc{b_1, b_2, b_3}$ and $c \in \mathbb{R}$.
The set of all $n$-dimensional vectors is \[V_n = \left\{\vc{a_1, a_2, \dots, a_n} : a_i \in \mathbb{R}\right\}\]
$V_n$ is called a vector space: a set of vectors, together with addition and scalar multiplication, required to satisfy the 8 properties below (the vector space axioms, for those in Calculus IV).
Let $\vec{a}, \vec{b}, \vec{c} \in V_n$ and $c, d \in \mathbb{R}$.
A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1. Given $\vec{a} \neq \vec{0}$, the corresponding unit vector is \[\vec{u} = \dfrac{\vec{a}}{|\vec{a}|}\]
Any vector $\vec{a} \neq \vec{0}$ can be decomposed into a product of its length and its unit direction: \[\vec{a} = \underbrace{\abs{\vec{a}}}_{\text{length}} \cdot \underbrace{\dfrac{\vec{a}}{|\vec{a}|}}_{\text{unit direction}}\]
An arbitrary vector $\vec{a} = \vc{a_1, a_2, a_3}$ can be broken up into vectors in each dimension: \begin{align} \vec{a} &= \vc{a_1, a_2, a_3} \\ &= \vc{a_1, 0, 0} + \vc{0, a_2, 0} + \vc{0, 0, a_3} \\ &= a_1\vc{1,0,0} + a_2\vc{0,1,0} + a_3\vc{0,0,1} \\ &= a_1\iv + a_2\jv + a_3\kv \end{align} where $\iv = \vc{1,0,0}$, $\jv = \vc{0,1,0}$, $\kv = \vc{0,0,1}$ are the standard basis vectors.
Given two vectors $\vec{a} = \vc{a_1, a_2, a_3}$ and $\vec{b} = \vc{b_1, b_2, b_3}$, the dot product $\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}$ is defined \[\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b} = a_1b_1 + a_2b_2 + a_3b_3\]
Let $\vec{a}, \vec{b}, \vec{c} \in V_3$ and $c \in \mathbb{R}$. Then
If $\theta$ is the angle between $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$, then \[\vec{a} \cdot \vec{b} = |\vec{a}||\vec{b}|\cos\theta\]
Key Idea $\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}$ is the Pythagorean defect: how far off $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ are from forming a right angle.
If $\vec{a}, \vec{b} \neq \vec{0}$, then the angle $\theta$ between $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ satisfies \[\cos\theta = \dfrac{\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}}{|\vec{a}||\vec{b}|}\]
In $\mathbb{R}^3$, two nonzero vectors $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ span a plane. The angle $\theta$ between $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ means the same thing in $\mathbb{R}^2$ as it does in $\mathbb{R}^3$: place them tail to tail and measure the angle inside the plane, taking $0 \leq \theta \leq \pi$.
Two vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) precisely when the angle between them is $\theta = 90^\circ$.
Fact $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ are orthogonal if and only if $\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b} = 0$.
The angle $\theta$, and in turn the dot product, tells us how two nonzero vectors are oriented:
Vectors are parallel when $\theta = 0^\circ$ or $180^\circ$, or equivalently when $\vec{b} = c\vec{a}$ for some scalar $c$.
$\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}$ really measures "how much" $\vec{b}$ is pointing in $\vec{a}$'s direction, relative to $|\vec{a}|$.
When $|\vec{a}| = 1$, $\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}$ answers the question "How much of $\vec{b}$ points along $\vec{a}$, measured in $\vec{a}$-lengths?"
In general, $\vec{a}$ is not a unit vector, but \[\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b} = |\vec{a}||\vec{b}|\cos\theta \qquad \text{implies} \qquad |\vec{b}|\cos\theta = \dfrac{\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}}{|\vec{a}|} = \dfrac{\vec{a}}{|\vec{a}|}\cdot \vec{b}\] which is exactly the dot product of $\vec{b}$ with the unit vector in the direction of $\vec{a}$.
The scalar projection of $\vec{b}$ onto $\vec{a}$ (also called the component of $\vec{b}$ along $\vec{a}$) is the signed length of the shadow of $\vec{b}$ in the direction of $\vec{a}$: \[\text{comp}_{\vec{a}}\vec{b} = \dfrac{\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}}{|\vec{a}|}\]
The vector projection of $\vec{b}$ onto $\vec{a}$ is that shadow as a vector (scalar projection times the unit vector in the direction of $\vec{a}$): \[\text{proj}_{\vec{a}}\vec{b} = \left(\dfrac{\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}}{|\vec{a}|}\right)\dfrac{\vec{a}}{|\vec{a}|} = \left(\dfrac{\vec{a}\cdot\vec{b}}{|\vec{a}|^2}\right)\vec{a}\]
In the following, the light purple vector is projected onto the blue vector. The vector projection is the dark purple vector. The scalar projection is the length of the dark purple vector.
If $A, B, C$ are distinct points on circle $O$ where $\overline{AB}$ is a diameter, then $\angle ACB$ is a right angle.
If $A(x_1, y_1)$ and $B(x_2, y_2)$ are the endpoints of a diameter, then the circle is the set of points $C(x, y)$ with $\ray{CA}\cdot\ray{CB} = 0$, giving \[(x - x_1)(x - x_2) + (y - y_1)(y - y_2) = 0\]
A determinant of order 2 is defined by \[\begin{vmatrix} a & b \\ c & d\end{vmatrix} = ad - bc\]
Insert the coordinates of $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ into the determinant column-wise, $\vec{a}$ first. The result is the signed area of the parallelogram determined by $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$.
The sign comes from the right hand rule, with the left column vector rotated onto the right column vector:
Swapping the order of the columns (rotating $\vec{b}$ onto $\vec{a}$ instead) flips the sign.
Let $\vec{a} = \vc{a_1, a_2, a_3}$ and $\vec{b} = \vc{b_1, b_2, b_3}$. The cross product of $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ is the vector \[\vec{a}\times\vec{b} = \vc{a_2b_3 - a_3b_2,\ a_3b_1 - a_1b_3,\ a_1b_2 - a_2b_1}\]
A determinant of order 3 is defined by expansion along the first row: \[\begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_2 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3 \\ c_1 & c_2 & c_3\end{vmatrix} = a_1\begin{vmatrix} b_2 & b_3 \\ c_2 & c_3\end{vmatrix} - a_2\begin{vmatrix} b_1 & b_3 \\ c_1 & c_3\end{vmatrix} + a_3\begin{vmatrix} b_1 & b_2 \\ c_1 & c_2\end{vmatrix}\]
Note the alternating signs $+, -, +$.Let $\vec{a} = \vc{a_1, a_2, a_3}$ and $\vec{b} = \vc{b_1, b_2, b_3}$. The cross product $\vec{a}\times\vec{b}$ is \[\vec{a}\times\vec{b} = \begin{vmatrix} \iv & \jv & \kv \\ a_1 & a_2 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3\end{vmatrix} = \begin{vmatrix} a_2 & a_3 \\ b_2 & b_3\end{vmatrix}\iv - \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_3\end{vmatrix}\jv + \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_2 \\ b_1 & b_2\end{vmatrix}\kv\]
The vector $\vec{a}\times\vec{b}$ is orthogonal to both $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$: \[(\vec{a}\times\vec{b})\cdot\vec{a} = 0 \qquad \text{and} \qquad (\vec{a}\times\vec{b})\cdot\vec{b} = 0\]
Among the two directions orthogonal to both, the direction of $\vec{a}\times\vec{b}$ is given by the right hand rule.
Careful Always curl your fingers from the vector left of $\times$ towards the vector on the right.
A vector $\vec{a}$ that is orthogonal to every vector in the plane.
If $\theta$ is the angle between $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$ with $\theta \in [0, \pi]$, then \[|\vec{a}\times\vec{b}| = |\vec{a}||\vec{b}|\sin\theta\]
The length of the cross product $\vec{a}\times\vec{b}$ is equal to the area of the parallelogram determined by $\vec{a}$ and $\vec{b}$.
Let $\vec{a}, \vec{b} \in V_3$ be nonzero. Then \[\vec{a}\times\vec{b} = \vc{A_{yz},\ A_{zx},\ A_{xy}}\] where $A_{yz}$ is the signed area of the parallelogram determined by $\vec{a}, \vec{b}$ after projecting onto the $yz$-plane, and likewise for $A_{zx}$ and $A_{xy}$.
Given $\vec{a}\times\vec{b}$, after you apply the right hand rule, look down the positive axis normal to that plane (toward the origin).
Projecting a surface onto a coordinate plane: set the coordinate along the plane's normal to 0.
Here, the blue vector is $\vec{a} = \vc{1,3,2}$, the purple vector is $\vec{b} = \vc{2,1,2}$, and $\vec{a} \times \vec{b} = \vc{4, 2, -5}$. The signed shadow areas are $A_{yz} = 4, A_{zx} = 2, A_{xy} = -5$.
Let $\vec{a}, \vec{b}, \vec{c} \in V_3$ and $c \in \mathbb{R}$. Then
In particular, $\vec{a}\times\vec{a} = \vec{0}$ for every $\vec{a} \in V_3$.
The product $\vec{a}\cdot(\vec{b}\times\vec{c})$ is called the scalar triple product.\[\vec{a}\cdot(\vec{b}\times\vec{c}) = \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & a_2 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3 \\ c_1 & c_2 & c_3\end{vmatrix}\]
The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors $\vec{a}, \vec{b}$ and $\vec{c}$ is the absolute value of their scalar triple product: \[V = \left|\vec{a}\cdot(\vec{b}\times\vec{c})\right|\]
In particular, $\vec{a}, \vec{b}, \vec{c}$ lie in the same plane (are coplanar) if and only if $\vec{a}\cdot(\vec{b}\times\vec{c}) = 0$.
A line $L$ in $\mathbb{R}^3$ is completely determined if we know two things: a point on the line and a direction vector for $L$, which is a vector $\vec{v}$ parallel to the line.
The vector equation of a line through a point $P_0(x_0, y_0, z_0)$ with position vector $\vec{r}_0$ and parallel to the vector $\vec{v}$ is \[\vec{r} = \vec{r}_0 + t\vec{v}, \qquad t \in \mathbb{R}\]
Letting $\vec{v} = \vc{a, b, c}$, $\vec{r} = \vc{x, y, z}$ and $\vec{r}_0 = \vc{x_0, y_0, z_0}$, this becomes \[\vc{x, y, z} = \vc{x_0 + ta,\ y_0 + tb,\ z_0 + tc}\]
Parametric equations for a line through the point $(x_0, y_0, z_0)$ and parallel to the vector $\vec{v} = \vc{a, b, c}$ are \[x = x_0 + at, \qquad y = y_0 + bt, \qquad z = z_0 + ct\]
The line segment from $\vec{r}_0$ to $\vec{r}_1$ is given by the vector equation \[\vec{r}(t) = (1 - t)\vec{r}_0 + t\vec{r}_1, \qquad 0 \leq t \leq 1\]
A plane in $\mathbb{R}^3$ is completely determined if we know two things:
The vector equation of a plane through a point $P_0(x_0, y_0, z_0)$ with position vector $\vec{r}_0$, normal vector $\vec{n}$, and arbitrary point $P(x, y, z)$ with position vector $\vec{r}$ is \[\vec{n}\cdot\left(\vec{r} - \vec{r}_0\right) = 0\] $\vec{r} - \vec{r}_0$ sweeps out every point in the plane.
A scalar equation of the plane through the point $P_0(x_0, y_0, z_0)$ with normal vector $\vec{n} = \vc{a, b, c}$ is \[a(x - x_0) + b(y - y_0) + c(z - z_0) = 0\]
Think of parameter $t$ as time, and $(x(t), y(t))$ as the location of a moving point. This allows us to trace curves which do not pass the vertical line test.
Vector $\vc{x(t), y(t)}$ is a position vector with tip tracing out the curve.
A conic section is an intersection of a double cone and a plane in $\mathbb{R}^3$.
| Conic | Rectangular Equation | Parametric Equations |
|---|---|---|
| Circle | \( (x-h)^2 + (y-k)^2 = r^2 \) | \( \begin{aligned} x &= h + r\cos t \\ y &= k + r\sin t \end{aligned} \) \( t \in [0, 2\pi) \) |
| Ellipse | \( \dfrac{(x-h)^2}{a^2} + \dfrac{(y-k)^2}{b^2} = 1 \) | \( \begin{aligned} x &= h + a\cos t \\ y &= k + b\sin t \end{aligned} \) \( t \in [0, 2\pi) \) |
| Hyperbola | \( \dfrac{(x-h)^2}{a^2} - \dfrac{(y-k)^2}{b^2} = 1 \) | \( \begin{aligned} x &= h + a\sec t \\ y &= k + b\tan t \end{aligned} \) \( t \in \left(-\tfrac{\pi}{2}, \tfrac{\pi}{2}\right) \cup \left(\tfrac{\pi}{2}, \tfrac{3\pi}{2}\right) \) |